Wall Structure & Siding

The wall structure of your home acts kind of like a skeleton. Made up of exterior walls and interior partitions that can be load bearing or not, the wall structure is constructed of “white wood” lumber that supports and provides a frame for drywall and sheathing. The vertical pieces of lumber in the wall structure are called studs.

The wall structure is found within the wall itself and includes the exterior walls, the interior load bearing and non-load bearing partitions and the headers (sometimes called lintels).

Usually softwood such as pine, spruce or fir is used to build the wall structure. You might see or hear it called SPF. Most often 2” x 4” dimensional lumber (or 2x4s) is used on interior walls. In some case the outer walls may be built from 2x6 to add more room for insulation. Spacing of the framing is commonly 16 inches between the vertical pieces, although 12 inch or 24 inch spacing is also used.

Headers or lintels are the horizontal pieces of lumber that are used to support the wall above a door or window. They are usually made up of 2” thick wood nailed together and attached to the studs. A sill is also installed opposite the header in a window frame.

All studs are attached together using either nails or screws. A horizontal bottom plate and top plate complete the wood framing of your wall structure.

Many other systems of your home can be found hiding within your wall structure. Insulation fills the gaps between the studs. The electrical wiring runs through the wood (thanks to neatly cut holes) and the outlet and switch boxes are attached directly to the wood stud. The same situation applies to plumbing.

Door frames and windows are nailed or screwed directly to the wood framing. And the drywall (interior) and sheathing or exterior finishing material is attached to the wood framing to create an actual wall.

Because the wood is found behind the drywall, there is really no need for maintenance. If you discover a mouse or other pest has made a home within your wall structure you may need to fumigate or lay out traps. Otherwise, your wood framing is virtually maintenance free.

Your wood framing should last for generations provided it is not exposed to moisture or pests. If you do experience a flood or the wall structure is otherwise damaged, replacement will be an extensive project. The finishing layer that is supported by the wood framing (drywall, for example) needs to be removed before the framing can be replaced. Demolition is a messy job.

The good news is that only the pieces that are damaged will need to be replaced. And with only a few basic tools this could be a DIY project. The important thing to remember is to keep the flooring above the wall supported while you’re working on it and to ensure the replacement studs are level and well secured.

Siding is defined as a material used in construction to dress the exterior walls of a building and provide protection from the elements. In a narrower sense, it’s the side wall material which is other than masonry.

The home inspector should be familiar with the different types of materials, their individual properties and methods of proper installation. The inspector will be called upon to identify the material. Among the most common used sidings are:

In an environmentally sensitive atmosphere, the inspector needs to be alert for any

Each siding material wears differently and can have a lifespan varying from a few years to decades to a lifetime. As a home inspector you must be aware of the various products used in your marketplace and understand who the climate, weather conditions and other situations effect the lifespan for the materials. At a minimum report what you see to the client so that they may make all determinations intelligently.

Aluminum and Vinyl

One common question asked is what is the difference between vinyl and aluminum siding. Other then the obvious difference they react totally different to the weather. When it is very hot the viylk siding has a tendency to warp or bend to the sun. Heat tends to make the vinyl softer and if it is nailed to the substrate to tightly will cause warping or a ripple effect. Conversely in the cold it will shrink and become very brittle. The slightest impact on the siding will result in a hole or a crack.

Aluminum will creek or make noise when the sun or heat hits it. It will move like aluminum does but when it is scratched, in any weather, it will loose its color in that area. Aluminum also has the tendency to dent or become chalky. This is a condition where the color or surface rubs of onto your hand when you come in contact with it.

Wood Siding

Wood siding could be solid wood siding placed on the house horizontally or vertically. It could also be in the form of plywood siding. In either case the key thing to identify for your client is decay and damage of any type. Typically this damage is as a result of neglect and water.

If the surface is not kept well sealed and protected from the weather the wood will start to decay. Some siding materials require staining while others need to be painted. Sometimes as a home inspector you may not be able to tell the difference. It is permissible to describe what is needed with the term coating.

If while looking at the siding you see several small horizontal holes in a row and you do not know where they came from. You should consider them to be woodpecker holes. There are no sure methods to discourage wood peckers from a home but an old wise tale is if you hang an owl somewhere near the home it will detour them.

When reviewing the wood identify if the knots are in place and whether or not the siding is crack, warped or ends are coming loose. If any of these conditions are present your client should be made aware of it.

Every wall of the building should be sighted as the inspector applies the theory of straight, plumb and level construction. Each and every bow or bulge should be analyzed to determine cause. This analysis might well include measurements to accurately assess and report the condition. Variations which may have structural implications may be noted in this portion of the inspection but must also be included in the structural elements section of the report.

After the structural elements have been analyzed and set aside, the inspector can concentrate on the functional and cosmetic elements of the siding. Elementary standards would have the inspector take note of and report any functional deficiencies.

Special note should be taken of any rust spots on the siding which might be an indication that uncoated or otherwise unsuitable nails were used and will portend to much additional rusting, a cosmetic nightmare in the near term and a source for eventual failure.

Special note should be taken of woodpecker damage because of the pesky nature of the bird and the likelihood it will return to the scene to cause additional damage. Woodpecker damage is usually seen as approximately 1/4” holes in wood siding, spaced inches apart and in a reasonably straight line.

If the entire home is one color but there is a small part of the siding that is a different color or shape of color that may be an indication of recent repair or activity. Providing the client with that information will help them ask the proper questions about the origin. As a home inspector you may not know all of the answers but you should know the right questions to ask.

Stucco is a cement product usually applied in three coats. As such it is subject to bonding failure caused by advanced age, moisture penetrations or faulty applications.

Loose stucco is not, however, an unusual occurrence. Periodic maintenance, sealing of cracks and repair - usually at 3-5 year intervals - is necessary to preserve it’s overall integrity and beauty. The inspector’s challenge is usually to determine how much work will be required and how soon it will need to be done. To that end, the inspector may want to do some “sounding” especially at bulges to determine current stability. Extreme care is necessary to avoid any damage in the sounding process.

Stucco is designed to allow water to enter and exit the wall and siding cavity. It was never intended to be solidly caulked into place and therefore does not experience the same decay and moisture issues as synthetic stucco does.

When inspecting stucco take into considerations of installation. Is it placed over lathe or wire mesh. If it is lathe it may be a bit more solid when knocked upon then the wire mesh. Wire mesh may start to sag or loosen from the home as the home shrinks or settles. Look at all of the surfaces. Plumb, level, square, and straight should always be identified. Any variations of plane must be noted. Because it is cementitious based it will expand or contract and will crack during freeze and thaw if water is allowed to enter. Pay very careful attention around the windows, doors, and gutter ends and

identify and bulges or cracks. All variation should be noted as well as any indications that there have been recent repairs to the product.

This is the term for synthetic stucco. Synthetic stucco has been around since World War II but it has only been used in residential housing applications since the early mid 1970’s. There is an issue this the use of this material in that it has an opportunity to hold water against the sub-straight materials and cause water damage, structural decay and moisture related health issues with molds. It is not difficult to identify whether or not the stucco on the home is cement based or synthetic but it is important to relate it to your client. In many cases the client is not aware of the potential issues related to this product.

EIFS is applied in thin coats over foam insulation. This insulation was at one time glues to the wall sheeting for a tight seal. Because it is glued to the wall it does not provide any de-watering of the materials. When the water does not evacuate it will start to rot or break down the structure and can cause damage that could range from the hundreds to tens of thousands of dollars to repair. This situation with decay in the walls and to the structure has fostered a multi million-dollar lawsuit against all of the product manufacturers.

The challenge to the home inspector is that you cannot see into the wall and behind the product. By the time any signs of decay are present it is typically too late for basic repairs and exhaustive structural decays are probable. It is important to understand, the testing and complete and thorough inspection of EIFS is going to be beyond the scope of the standard home inspection. It will involve techniques that are technically exhaustive and require some specialized training to perform properly.

This testing will include the use of surface moisture detectors as well as probe type moisture detectors. These will have to penetrate the surface in order to examine the moisture levels of the sub straights. There are established guidelines by the Exterior Design Institute that can help guide the inspector through the process, which is located at www.edi.org. Another source of education is through the Association of Wall and Ceiling Industries. They are located on the Internet at www.awci.org.

When reviewing EIFS through the eyes of the typical inspector it will be important to identify any openings in the material surface. The smallest opening around a light fixture or doorbell could provide water entry into the home. This product or surface layer could crack and that will allow water through the wall. Whenever the moisture level in the wall reaches a level above 20% the wood will start to decay. Since you, as the typical inspector, cannot see through the wall at the decay and by the time you see fungus growing on the windows it is too late, you should always recommend you clients have the EIFS siding reviewed and inspected by a qualified technician before purchasing the home.

One thing to take note is that most of the reported problems with EIFS siding have occurred with the older application process of gluing the foam to the home directly. The modern application process uses different foam, which is able to shed or weep the water away form the home. This process is called an EPS system. You may not be able to directly identify the drainage system but if you place your hand to the underside of the bottom portion it will feel spongy or hollow. This may be the indication these application is present. Having this application present should not qualify or disqualify you client from additional review. Always suggest this be performed.

Hardboard Siding

Hardboard siding was developed as a low cost alternative to solid wood. Developed with the use of wood fibers, glues, resins and fillers it is not a maintenance free product. It will require periodic painting. The challenge is the product is pressed together and the surface paper is the only portion of the product designed to shed water. If you scratch, cut or mar this layer it will start to soak up water.

There are many similarities among the fiberboard products sold to builders. Hardboard trim is readily available in all regions of the country. All hardboard trim products weigh about the same, around 50 pounds per cubic foot. This is about twice as heavy as solid redwood. Hardboard trim products are available in 1- and 5/4- inch thickness, 4" - 12" widths and 16-foot lengths. Manufacturers offer 7/16-inch thick soffit material too. The trim is made with an exterior-grade binder and usually comes in smooth and wood-figured textures. The motivating force for developing these products is cost and availability of high-grade solid wood

Most manufacturers have expressed concern over the reputation hardboard siding seems to have developed among builders. Thickness-swell is a problem. Wood fibers are compressed in the hot-press when the boards are made. Some of this compression stress is relieved over time. This causes the swelling that is observed around nail heads and at the ends of some boards. Hardboard is more likely to absorb moisture and swell where unprotected fibers are exposed to weather. The forces associated with thickness swell are so great that they cause paint coatings to fail along the edges of boards. Water enters cracks and unprotected penetrations (like over-driven nails) in the paint surface accelerating the degrade process. Even if the claims of rot-resistance are accurate, softening, swelling and delamination of fiberboard is an undeniable concern.

Buckling can be a problem too. As we go from solid wood to hardboard during the manufacturing process, we tear down the grain structure of wood, randomize the fiber direction and put it back together as a homogeneous material. The low longitudinal expansion of solid wood is averaged out with the higher tangential and radial potentials. As a result, hardboard shrinks and swells more along its length than solid wood. But manufacturers blame improper application, detailing and maintenance for swelling and buckling problems.

Hardboard siding has been very controversial through the years. Like EIFS it has been involved in multi-million dollar class action lawsuits that have resulted in many home having to be resided due to failure. Water will saturate into the product if it is not kept well coated.

When inspecting hardboard siding stand back away from the home and view the entire surface area. If you see waviness or areas that are starting to blister, bubble or bulge this is the typical indication there are issues with the siding. A moisture meter test of the product will always show water so that will not be possible to perform. Look at the bottom boards. If there is any ground contact those boards will start to swell and absorb water. Once t he boards are wet they will never dry out flat or be without damage.

Take the time and review the entire home for any defects with this product. It will be located at the bottoms of the boards, the butt joist where two boards join together, or where trees and shrubs are rubbing against the siding. Note any variations and recommend to your clients to keep this product well coated and never scrape the surface prior to painting or power wash. By power washing, if there are any cracks, holes or damaged areas that can become significantly more damaged with the excess water.

Masonry

Masonry as an exterior wall covering is much more complex than is siding. The public at large, for instance, will invariably consider masonry to be a structural element simply because it’s substantial and cost a a great deal of money to install and repair. They are right of course, to the extent that one brick is piled on another and the brick above depends on the brick below for it’s stability. Since we were children read story book we have known the brick house is the best house. At least as far as huff and puff is concerned.

In order to understand the varying structural aspects of masonry, an inspector must become familiar with the different methods and uses of it’s installation.

Many older homes, are built with solid masonry walls. Those walls are usually eight or more inches thick and are an integral, load bearing part of the house structure in that beams, floor joists and roof structures are directly dependent upon them for support. While solid masonry is still much used in commercial and industrial construction, it is not often used in modern day home construction.

The need for greater energy efficiency, shorter building time and cost considerations gave rise to the use of brick veneer construction. In this method, the entire wood or other building frame can be built and virtually completed. A brick wall, generally about 4” thick is then added as exterior skin or dressing. As such, the brick veneer wall is a structural element unto itself but not as an integral part of the building structure.

Masonry construction is a subject unto itself about which many volumes have been written. A full treatment of the subject is therefore well beyond the scope of this test. Good inspectors will do well to expand their knowledge for a full understanding of the subject.

Irregularities in masonry construction will likely stem from four major sources.

Water penetrations with subsequent freeze and thaws are the mortal enemies of masonry.

If the principle of straight, plumb and level applies any where at all in the building process, it is most important in masonry construction. The level is the mason’s most basic and most often used tool. Any variation from straight and true, plumb and level, should therefore give the inspector a very big alert with

Settlement cracks in masonry are the result of some movement of the supporting foundation. It’s most distinguishing characteristic is that the crack will start form the bottom and move upward. It is not unlikely that the crack will be larger at the top then it is at the bottom.

Thermal cracks, on the other hand, are the result of some weather related occurrence. The crack will begin at the point of the initial thermal reaction and will then move in any direction but not necessarily reach the bottom as does a settlement crack. (see pg)

Understanding this important difference between the settlement and thermal crack will go a long way in helping the inspector analyze and determine the cause and seriousness of the condition. The settlement crack will, of course, turn the inspector’s attention to the suitability or effectiveness of the supporting foundation.

The thermal crack or one of the many other irregularities possible in a masonry wall will induce the inspector to consider a wide range of probable causes. Among them:

Large sections of masonry walls will expand and contract with changing weather conditions. Where no expansion joint has been provided, the wall may develop a crack, usually at a point where there is no running bond such as at window or door openings.

Any opening in mortar joints will allow for water penetrations and thermal reactions.

Reverse pitch on window or door sills, i.e. a slight pitch downward towards the outside, will eventually result in water penetrations behind the masonry (and possibly into the inside of the building).

Openings in row lock brick used as window sills will permit water penetrations to the inside.

Rusting steel used in masonry construction will result in thermal cracks or other irregularities.

Since rust occupies 40 times the volume of iron it displaces and exerts prodigious physical force in the oxidation process, it is a possible source of serious building deficiencies. Additionally, if the rusting process is allowed to continue it will eventually result in structural failure of the steel member. The inspector therefore must be alert to any exposed steel and take note of the condition as it exists now with a view towards the potential of future damage. This is especially true in new construction, where, in the interest of expediency or perhaps sheer laziness, masons will on occasion install steel lintels which have not been prime painted with a rust preventative.

Efflorescence, as used in this context, is a deposit of water soluble salts upon the surface or in the pores of masonry. This salt deposit is usually white in color although it’s color may vary under certain conditions. Efflorescence can be harmful to the masonry as well as visually unsightly. The mechanisms of efflorescence are many and complicated but simply stated, water soluble salts are brought to the surface of masonry in solutions of water and deposited there by evaporation. This definition gives rise to the dictum: Efflorescence on masonry means water (or similar liquid) in masonry. Period. To prevent efflorescence it is necessary to eliminate it’s source, water entry (although on occasion it will take a long time to be rid of efflorescence even though it’s source has been eliminated).

The inspector should be aware, however, that efflorescence on masonry is not at all unusual in new construction. Called “new-building bloom” it occurs when there’s moisture in the masonry or simply the residue of moisture in the mortar.

Mortar should be hard in it’s finished state. Because it is a bonded granular material it will, however, have some tendency to wear away over time. Some granular looseness should be expected. When the mortar is powdery, usually the effects of repeated efflorescing, it no longer has the structural integrity for which it was designed.

When too much of the mortar is worn away or deteriorated it’s time for tuck-pointing, i.e. removing the loose mortar and refilling the joint with new, usually special mortar. The inspector needs to be alert to newly tuck-pointed surfaces especially if some of the mortar is already falling out of place. Since this usually means a poor bond between the old and new mortar it can be a serious problem. The inspector should take note of and report any sign of failing re-pointing. This will require the inspector to take a very close, in depth, look at the condition and do as much “sounding” as necessary to reach a definite conclusion.

Missing brick faces are not a very pretty sight. In older brick it is usually a sign of moisture penetration which has deteriorated the brick. To some extent spalling brick faces will be the result of ordinary wear and tear on common brick or those referred to as “soft” brick.

Since the only method of repair is removal and replacement of the spalled brick, the inspector should report each and every instance. This is especially true in newer buildings where a few spalled brick faces may be the portent of a very serious near term occurance. Said

another way, if twenty brick faces have fallen off within a year, how many will fall off next year?

Weep holes are simply a missing mortar joint every 2’0” (formerly 4’0”) in the base course of masonry on a brick veenered building. Sometimes a rope will be installed into the weep hole. Used to prevent moisture accumulations, it has now become a standard requirement for modern day construction.

As in most construction, the principles of straight, plumb or level apply to eaves and facia. Parethentically, the term eave is used synonymously with soffit and the

Active water penetrations into and/or under the eave spaces will oftentimes be found in the area of roof valleys or at various flashings points such as places where one section of a building meets another.

This product has been around scarcly over 15 years and has completely taken over the siding board market. Fiber-cement siding has no celulose (wood) content. It is roughly 90% concrete and 10% fiberglass. As a result, it is considered a masonry product. It is formed in 4x8 sheets and standard plank legths and pressed with wood paterns to imitate most popular designs. Additional products available today include pre-perforated panels to build eaves that ventilate well and various demensions of trim for use around corners and openings. Most builders in the south use fiber-cement in every typical siding and trim application creating a home which appears to be wood, however, is 99.9% masonry.

Addicks, Alief, Arcola, Baytown, Bellaire, Brookside, Bunker Hill, Channelview, Chateau Woods, Clear Lake City, Clear Lake Shores, Crosby, Cypress, Deer Park, Dickinson, El Lago, Fresno, Friendswood, Galena Park, Hedwig, Hilshire, Kockley, Houston, Huffman, Hufsmith, Humble, Hunters Creek, Huntsville, Jacinto City, Jersey City, Katy, Kemah, Kingwood, Laporte, League City, Manvel, Missouri City, Mont Belvieu, Montgomery, Nassau Bay, Oak Ridge North, Pasadena, Pearland, Piney point, Seabrook, Shenandoah, Shoreacres, South Houston, Spring, Stafford, Sugar Land, Taylor Lake Village, Tomball, Waller, Webster, West University, Willis, Woodbranch Village, The Woodlands.